HEART ATTACK!

Originally uploaded by kooky love

By: Wendy O.

Heart attacks and sudden cardiac arrest are often used interchangeably, but they are two completely different conditions. One reason why they are mistaken for each other is because many times a heart attack can lead to sudden cardiac arrest, but the way each condition is treated, and prevented is distinct.

Heart Attacks

Heart attacks are caused by circulation complications, which are caused by blockages in arteries, the main highways for blood flow to the heart. When blood cannot get to the heart, oxygen is not delivered, and the heart muscle begins to die.

Heart attacks are often depicted in the media as a sudden, painful instance, however this is not how heart attacks are normally experienced. Symptoms of a heart attack are often mild at onset, with some people reporting no symptoms at all. Chest pain and discomfort, shortness of breath, nausea, and upper body discomfort are the most common symptoms. These symptoms often develop slowly, and can be felt for hours, days, or even weeks prior to a heart attack.

Heart attacks can lead to sudden cardiac arrest because such damage of the muscle can cause a disturbance in the hearts electrical system. When electrical impulses do not work properly, heart beats fall out of their normal rhythm pattern. Abnormal rhythm can cause the heart to beat dangerously fast, causing sudden cardiac arrest.

Sudden Cardiac Arrest
Unlike a heart attack that is caused by poor blood flow to the heart, cardiac arrest is an electrical problem that occurs within the heart. This occurs when the lower chamber of the heart, called ventricles, develop an abnormal rhythm, called ventricular fibrillation. When this happens, full contraction of the ventricles does not occur as it should. The heart requires full ventricular contractions in order to pump blood to the brain and other areas of the body, and such inadequate contractions prevent this normal process from occurring.

When a person goes into sudden cardiac arrest, consciousness and a pulse are lost within seconds. It is therefore vital for a sufferer to receive emergency treatment within minutes. Treatment options include CPR, and external defibrillation. The American Heart Association recommends such treatment options within 5 minutes of collapse to prevent death, as the survival rate decreases by 10% with each passing minute after initial loss of consciousness.

Source: Medtronic

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big gray sky

Originally uploaded by Angelica Seregina

By: Wendy Ouriel

We have all heard phrases like “feeling blue,” or being “green with envy,” but is there any scientific evidence to suggest that these sayings reflect the relationship between human emotion, and color?
Peter Whorwell, MD, PhD, of University Hospital South Manchester, and fellow researchers conducted a study whose results suggest that those who are depressed prefer grey, and other dull colors, while people who are generally happy prefer bright colors such as yellow.

The study utilized a tool called the “Manchester Color Wheel,” which displayed a variety of colors, and presented the wheel to a group of over 500 participants. Of those participants, 300 were considered happy, and without any diagnosed mental condition, and 220 were considered anxious or depressed. Researchers asked each participant to choose the color that they were most drawn to, the color that was their favorite, and the color that reflected their current mood. Yellow was chosen most frequently by both groups as the color they were most drawn to. Blue was the favorite color by both groups. Where the groups differ is in the last question: what color best reflects your current mood? The majority of participants in the healthy group chose yellow to reflect their mood, while the depressed/anxious group chose grey.
The researchers offer the following explanation for the discrepancy: the color gray implies “a dark state of mind, a colorless and monotonous life, gloom, misery or a disinterest in life.” Yellow, on the other hand, is linked to “happiness, cheerfulness and a positive emotional state.”

This study may prove useful in diagnosing patients with depression when communication is a barrier, such as with children, and those who do not speak English.

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Homersapien

Originally uploaded by Hoodoo Man

By: Wendy O.

I took a course a few semesters ago that focused primarily on the evolution of simple organisms. This was towards the beginning of my biology career, and every course I have taken since then has built onto what was learned in that basic evolution course. We would not be here today if it were not for evolution, so it is paramount for scientists of any field to know at least the basics.

Evolution is a fascinating subject, but it is highly complex. Everyone has heard of it, yet few actually understand what is going on. For example, most have heard the phrase “survival of the fittest.” It is the main concept of natural selection. It sounds easy enough to understand: the fittest will survive, and the weak will die. This is all true, yet when it is used by most to justify something, it is usually used in the wrong way. I blame the scientists who coined this phrase for using too common of terms, which leads to confusion. The problem with the phrase is the word “fittest.” We use the word “fit” in everyday English to describe something that is in good physical shape. However, fitness actually means how well suited an organism is to its environment, and if it can produce offspring. It has nothing to do with how long it can run on a treadmill. Think about it this way: if “survival of the fittest” was all about how physically strong an organism was, wouldn’t big, carnivorous organisms such as the Tryanosaurus be around today, and small insects such as the cockroach be extinct?

Evolution is a tough subject to learn, which is one reason for all of the misunderstandings. Another reason is that it is a controversial subject too, so those misunderstandings are not always cleared up. For whatever the reason, it is a fundamental concept that should be understood by all at least at the basic level. Here is a list of some misconceptions of evolution, along with a brief description:

1. Origin of Life
It is often thought that evolution is a theory that explains how life begun on earth, but evolution, and its many theories, focus on how life changes and how it changed after life had begun.

2. Always Getting Better
The most well known theory of evolution is evolution by natural selection. This theory deals with the previously mentioned “survival of the fittest” means of adaptation and evolution. A common misconception that stems from this theory is that species, as some adapt and survive and others die out, those that survive must in some way be better than the ones that died out. This is not true, the ones that survived were simply more suited to that particular environment, at that particular time. In another environment, the organisms that died out may be the ones who now survive. The idea of natural selection has everything to do with environment, and nothing to do with progress.

3. Mutation is Bad
Without genetic mutation, all organisms of a given species would be exactly the same. All of the individuals of a population would have the same weaknesses, and could all be wiped out by a single cause. Mutation allows for some organisms to have an advantage over others, such as the ability to resist certain diseases.

4. Natural Selection Gives an Organism What it Needs
I hear this one a lot, even by so called “credible sources.” One example would be, mammals that live in cold environments need thick fur to survive, so natural selection gave these organisms the gene needed to grow thick fur. The problem with this logic is that evolution by natural selection doesn’t care what an organism needs. I need a Chanel purse, but natural selection still has not given one to me. What happens is: the organisms with the gene for thick fur will survive and reproduce (they have a high level of fitness), passing on the genes for thick fur .The organisms without the thick fur gene will die, will not produce offspring, and will not pass on any genes for non-thick fur. It is important to remember that natural selection is not a living thing. Therefore, it does not know when to give an organism something to ensure its survival.

5. Evolution is a Random Process
The process of evolution can be quite unpredictable at times, but for the most part it is quite systematic. The idea that evolution occurs haphazardly stems from the fact that genetic mutation, the source for variation among organisms, occurs at random. Natural selection, on the other hand, has a mechanism to it. It does not occur by chance that some organisms live, while others die. Many factors are involved, such as an organisms adaptability to a particular environment, the ability to produce offspring, and the ability to pass on favorable traits to those offspring.

6. Disparity Among Fossil Records Discredit the Theory
We can see the transition of organisms through fossil records, but sometimes there are no fossils to be found of an organism in one stage of its evolution. This gap does not disprove anything, all it proves is that the conditions were not met to make a fossil. Scientists can actually predict when there will be a gap in the fossil record. It is also important to remember that there are many transitional fossils that have been found, such as the fossils of organisms that show the transition from prehistoric dinosaurs to modern day birds.

There are lots of misconceptions out there, these are just a few. Let me know in the comments section if there are any you would like added to the list.

Thank you MFS for the suggestions!

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Pathway Ginkgo Biloba

Originally uploaded by Village Green Apothecary

By: Wendy Ouriel

In an earlier post I talked of how vitamins do not provide any measurable health benefits. In a new study published in the December issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association, researchers have found another instance where such supplements simply do not work. In this case, Ginkgo biloba was the focus of the study.

Ginkgo biloba is widely marketed as a memory enhancing supplement, with the claim that it can ward off diseases characterized by cognitive decline, such as Alzheimer’s. This new study, however, finds such claims to be bogus. It was found that elderly patients who took Ginkgo biloba had no less of a decline in memory, language, or any other cognitive function compared to those elderly patients who did not take the supplement. It was also found that taking the supplement did not have any effect on the instance rate of Alzheimer’s or other forms of dementia.

One reason why Ginkgo biloba is marketed as a cognitive enhancer is because it contains flavonoids, a type of antioxidant which may prevent the build-up of beta-amyloid protein in the brain. The accumulation of this protein in the brain is a known characteristic among Alzheimer’s sufferers. However, there is no evidence to support that this supplement will prevent such an accession from occurring.

Details of the Study
The study took eight years to complete, and involved 3096 patients ranging in age from 72 to 96. Patients either took 120mg of Ginkgo biloba twice daily, or a placebo.

Researchers found that the two groups did not differ in cognitive function; those that took the supplement did not show an improvement in memory, attention, visuo-spatial ability, or language. It was also found that patients who took Ginkgo biloba did not have a lower instance rate of Alzheimer’s or other forms of dementia compared to the placebo group.

So all in all, don’t waste your money on Ginkgo biloba, or any other dietary supplement for that matter. There is no evidence to back up claims that they will improve your mental or physical well being. Your best bet is to eat right, exercise, and do what you can to stay sane.

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By Wendy Ouriel

In this video, and octopus is seen carrying around a coconut shell, and using it for protection. Many organisms are known to use shells as protection, such as the hermit crab, which lives inside its shell at all times. However, what makes this feat so fascinating is that the octopus does not always use the shell. It knows to hide inside the shell only when it senses danger, signifying that it has enough sense to know its physical limitations, and to thus utilize a tool to ensure survival. Tool use was previously thought to be a skill employed only by some vertebrates, namely humans.
The video below:

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nucléotides

Originally uploaded by nodolls83

By: Wendy Ouriel

Yesterday in my genetics class we began our discussion of the human genome, and complete mapping of genes. A genome is an organisms hereditary information in its entirety. Many organisms have had their entire genomes mapped out, and in 2003 the Human Genome Project successfully determined and mapped all 20,000-25,000 genes of the human genome.

The discussion then moved on to personal genomes, where an individual can get their own genome mapped out. This would allow a person to know more about his or her genetic makeup, and what diseases they are at risk for. This is an excellent tool for preventative medicine, but it has a downside: genetic discrimination. If everyone were to have hers or his genome mapped out, then diseases that they are susceptible to would be known, and can be used against them when seeking insurance coverage. For example, if a persons genome indicated that they have a genetic mutation putting them at a high risk of developing Huntington’s Disease, a health insurer may decline them coverage despite actually having the disease when applying for coverage. However, a measure has been taken to prevent this sort of discrimination:

The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA)
The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 is a federal law that protects Americans from discrimination due to genetic mutations, and other differences in DNA that put them at risk for disease. According to the law, a person cannot be denied coverage, or be fired from their job based on their genetic makeup. The act was signed into law in May of 2008, with the insurance portion of the act taken into effect in May of 2009, and the employer portion of the act taken into effect in November of 2009.

The law will allow people to seek individual genomic mapping without fear that they will lose insurance coverage or their jobs. Genetic tests greatly benefit ones health, allowing for preventative measures before a disease progresses. It is therefore important for whoever has the opportunity, to get such tests without the worry of unfair consequences.

Source: Genetic Discrimination Fact Sheet: National Human Genome Research Institute

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Originally uploaded by violinsoldier

By: Wendy Ouriel

Like most students, I am always looking for a new way to retain information, especially when studying for an exam. One strategy I have had for a long time is to listen to classical music either while studying, or right before a test. I did this to relax, but research has shown that classical music, namely music composed by Mozart, can also temporarily increase spatial reasoning skills.

In a 1993 study, researchers found that after listening to Mozart’s sonata K448 for 10 minutes, subjects showed significant improvement in their spacial reasoning skills compared to when they listened to other music, sounds, or silence. The spacial IQ score increased by an average of 8 to 9 points when listening to Mozart. The only downside to these findings is the increase in spacial reasoning skill was only temporary, and returned to normal after about 15 minutes.

The study has drawn some criticism, with some arguing that the Mozart effect will only improve the spacial reasoning skills of those who enjoy the music. Those who like what they are listening to experience “enjoyment arousal,” and thus wouldn’t show any improvement if they were listening to something that wasn’t enjoyable. In order to test, and disprove this theory, rats were exposed in utero, and for a period of 60 days following birth to the same music, sounds, and silence as the human subjects. The rats were then given a test where they had to complete a maze. The rats that were exposed to Mozart’s sonata completed the maze quicker, and with fewer errors than the rats who listened to others types of music, white noise, or silence. This experiment proved that the increase in spacial reasoning experience after listening to Mozart is not simply due to enjoyment arousal.

The exact reason for why a person shows improvement in spacial reasoning after listening to Mozart is not clear. The current explanation centers around certain areas of the brain becoming activated upon hearing certain sounds. PET scans have shown that after listening to Mozart, the prefrontal, temporal, and precuneus regions become activated. These areas of the brain overlap with the areas of the brain that are involved in music processing, which provides a good explanation as to why these other areas of the brain become active.

Of particular importance was the finding of the effect Mozart’s sonata had on those with epilepsy. Epileptic patients who listened to Mozart showed a dramatic decrease in epileptiform activity, with some patients showing as much as a 50% decrease. One striking finding of this portion of the study was that improvement was even seen in one patient who was comatose.

So what makes Mozart’s sonata so special? Researchers also exposed subjects to other Mozart works, and found similar results. Which brings up the question, is it just Mozart’s music that brings about an increase in spacial reasoning skills? Other composers of classical music were used to find out. Bach’s music was analyzed, and was found to be similar to Mozart’s music when it came to emphasis of certain notes. This suggests that it is not just Mozart’s music that activates certain areas of the brain, which in turn increases spacial reasoning skills, but rather it is the notes used, and how they are emphasized that activates these areas.

Read the entire study Here

Source: J S Jenkins, MD FRCP, The Mozart Effect. The Royal Society of Medicine, J R Soc Med. 2001 April; 94(4): 170–172.

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My Brain

Originally uploaded by Jonathan!

By: Wendy O.

At a recent meeting for the Society for Neuroscience, UCLA scientists presented their findings that older adults with little experience using the internet showed an increase in brain function after just one week of using the internet. These adults showed that after surfing the web for a short time, certain areas of the brain became stimulated. Namely areas that control decision making, and complex reasoning.

It is an old maxim that you cannot teach an old dog new tricks, but these findings prove that saying wrong. While it is true that as one ages, certain parts of the brain deteriorate, and cell activity declines, this does not mean that the brain is done for after a certain age. As the research has shown, the brain is capable of learning new ways to efficiently function, and to encode new information.
“We found that for older people with minimal experience, performing Internet searches for even a relatively short period of time can change brain activity patterns and enhance function,” says the author of the study, Dr. Gary Small.

The Study
Quoted from Science Daily:
The UCLA team worked with 24 neurologically normal volunteers between the ages of 55 and 78. Prior to the study, half the participants used the Internet daily, while the other half had very little experience. Age, educational level and gender were similar between the two groups.

The first scan of participants with little Internet experience demonstrated brain activity in regions controlling language, reading, memory and visual abilities, which are located in the frontal, temporal, parietal, visual and posterior cingulate regions, researchers said. The second brain scan of these participants, conducted after the practice Internet searches at home, demonstrated activation of these same regions, as well as triggering of the middle frontal gyrus and inferior frontal gyrus – areas of the brain known to be important in working memory and decision-making.

In concluding the experiment, the researchers found that the participants, who only used the internet for a short time, showed brain activation patterns similar to those of people who regularly use the internet.

Source: Science Daily

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Aligator in the Everglades – Florida

Originally uploaded by sigfus.sigmundsson

By: Wendy O.

Over the weekend, a group of friends and I went to Las Vegas for Halloween. Before we left we went to my favorite pet store to look at all the exotic pets they carry. They have monkeys, ferrets, sugar gliders, hedgehogs, pythons, and a ton more. The pet store is great, but the problem with owning an exotic pet is the tremendous responsibility that goes along with it.

For example, when I go up to do volunteer work at a Basset hound rescue ranch, I often hear stories of alligators that were abandoned close to the ranch. What happens is, people buy the alligators from pet stores when they are babies. Baby alligators are between 8 and 12 inches long, so they look cute and manageable at the pet store. However, each year the alligator will grow a foot in length, with some males growing over 14 feet long and weighing over 1000 pounds! They are a great responsibility, and after a while the pet owner will lose interest and abandon them.

The exotic pet business has boomed in recent years, and generates billions of dollars worldwide each year. The demand for certain species is so high that there is even a black market for certain types. One example is the Lear Macaw. There are only a few hundred known to live in the wild, and they sell for over $44,000 thousand on the black market.

The high demand for rare pets also has an effect on the species being sold. According to Spiegel Online:

The hunt for profitable pets has become so intense that
some of the animals found, shipped and sold are unknown
species/A few years ago a type of monitor lizard that biologists had
never seen or heard of turned up at the world’s biggest reptile fair,
Terraristika in Hamm, northwestern Germany, he said — someone
had plucked it from the Indonesian island of Obi. So theoretically,
it’s possible that new species unknown to science are crawling
around apartments…

What is also worrisome is how the animals are transported. Since a lot of exotic animals have to be concealed due to various pet owning laws, it is reasonable to conclude that these animals are not handled in the most safe and humane way. According to the same article quoted above:

Profits are so high that smugglers are using the kind of
ingenuity associated with drug trafficking — except it’s living
creatures they have down their trousers rather than cocaine.

Common techniques include carrying parrot eggs in one’s
underpants, shoving iguanas and small birds in plastic tubes, or
squashing poison dart frogs in plastic drinks bottles. In one case
375 little tortoises were found packed in a suitcase at Frankfurt
airport.

Having an exotic pet can be quite enjoyable. They are different, beautiful, and allow us to see what types of animals the world has to offer. However, we must remember that they are not trophy’s, they are living creatures with needs. So next time you’re at the pet store and you see a cute baby alligator, it is probably best to think: do I really want a 14 foot reptile hanging around my house?

Source: Spiegel Online: Alarm Over Exotic Pet Boom

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DNA Connection

Originally uploaded by darrowassoc

By: Wendy O.

In my chemistry class the other night, we were working with various substances with the purpose of finding what elements composed the matter. By the end of the lab, I was able to derive a chemical formula for the substance I was working with. This experiment got me thinking: everything that we have worked with thus far has a chemical formula, is the same true for humans?

In order to write an empirical formula for something, it must be broken up into single atoms. So to begin writing a chemical formula for humans we need to consider what elements we are composed of. The problem with this first step is that our body composition varies depending on whether the person is female or male. Females have more lipids, while males have more water. But, if we were to take an average, the human body consists of about 66% oxygen, 20% carbon, 10% hydrogen, and 3% nitrogen. The rest of the elements are found in trace amounts such as potassium, phosphorus, and chlorine.

So once we know what elements we are mostly comprised of, and the amount present in the body, an empirical formula can be written. It would look something like this:
H₁₅₇₅₀N₃₁₀O₆₅₀₀C₂₂₅₀Ca₆₃P₄₈K_15S15Na₁₀Cl₆Mg₃Fe₁

It is helpful to have a chemical formula for something that we want to study, but the problem with the human body is that it is always changing, and is extremely complex. A more accurate formula would in fact fill an entire book, but this is a good general picture of what we are made of.

It is important to keep in mind also that although a chemical formula can be written for a species, it in no way characterizes that organism. A living organism has extensive adaptation self-regulation that is unique, and the way chemical reactions are processed cannot be simply explained by a formula. It is therefore almost impossible to write a true formula for a human being as life is more than chemical components, it is more about what is done with them.

Source: Why Don’t Penguin’s Feet Freeze?. New York, NY: Free Press, 2006. Print.

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